Seas and Lakes

More than three quarters of the surface of the Earth is covered by water in the form of oceans, seas and lakes. The volume of water from these bodies is drawn up into the clouds by the effect of the heat received from the sun and it descends as rain, keeping life in existence, today. Several parts of the ocean floors are more than ten miles, stretching below the surface and some abysses are even deeper than that. There are many wonders in the oceans that are even found close the land shores and they include deep harbours, coral reefs, sandbars and gravel banks which are built by the action of the ocean waves and the ebb and flow of the tides which is caused by the pull of the Moon. Most of the islands that are found in the middle of the oceans emerge from the sea floor directly. The coral reefs are made up of small coral animals that are also known as polyps or planktons and they are related to sea anemones and jellyfish. They occur in seas that have temperatures exceeding eighteen degrees Celsius or sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit. These corals exist in colonies and they build external skeletons from calcium that is extracted from the seawater. These combined skeletons build huge deposits that turn into atolls and reefs. The Power of Seas and Lakes The seas and lakes have the power to change the face of Planet Earth. It has to be noted that the waves crash on to already heavily eroded rocky shores. Atolls also begin as fringing reefs around volcanic islands. They emanate from the rims of craters. On account of the subsidence, the centres of islands are left submerged to form lagoons and the reefs form atolls. The longer reefs appear off continental coasts. A fine example is the Great Barrier Reef, off the North-Eastern coast of Australia. Many people imagine lakes to be limited in size and area. There are some lakes in this world that look as big as the oceans, themselves. Take Lake Superior or the Caspian Sea for example. Caspian Sea is the largest in the world and it covers an area of one hundred and forty-four thousand square miles. It is located in a great depression, east of the Caucasus Mountains and it lies about ninety feet below the sea level. In contrast, the Aral Sea is located about two hundred and twenty miles to its east and lies about one hundred and sixty-five feet above the sea level. The Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States of America is the saltiest in the world. Lake Eyre, the largest lake in Australia is often wholly dry and is covered with a thick crust of salt, covering its bed. It gets filled only in times of heavy rainfall. Lake Baikal in Southern Siberia is the deepest lake in the world. It fills a deep rift valley with its bed being close to five thousand feet below the sea level at the lowest point. Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world. It forms one of the five great lakes in North America. The Tarn House in Cumbria to the north of England is a fine example of a mountain lake, occupying a hollow that was created by snow and ice. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is the highest situated lake in the world. Its surface is at around twelve thousand feet above the sea level.

The Trans Mountain Pipeline – Is it worth the big risk?!

So far, eighteen insurers have already dropped Trans Mountain because of the detrimental impact on local communities and drinking water issues but Liberty Mutual has remained silent. This project is in direct violation of human rights, as it does not have consent from indigenous communities. It has to be noted that if that isn’t bad enough, Liberty is also known for dropping coverage for people in areas most affected by climate disasters. Liberty Mutual maybe sensitive to any threats that spoil their `wholesome’ and `community-driven’ brand reputation. Whatever, The Trans Mountain pipeline is not worth the risk involving the health and safety of frontline communities and the threat to local wildlife. Trans Mountain poses massive threats to surrounding wildlife. From Anna’s hummingbirds to Orcas in the northern Pacific, this pipeline risks animals all along its route through Western Canada. Entire ecosystems are at risk and that is a big threat to local communities too. It looks like Liberty Mutual will decide the fate of the Trans Mountain Pipeline — and the fate of so many lives — when they decide whether or not to renew its insurance certificate The Trans Mountain pipeline, at some point, will break and leak, causing toxic tar sands oil to pollute drinking water and wild salmon habitats. Communities have called for a stop to the pipeline in order to protect the salmon — a food source and a large part of local economies; but their demands have been ignored. Ecosystems are connected. It’s not just a risk to a few animals in the short- term. Projects such as these cover hundreds of miles, carrying thousands of tons of tar sands oil. It harms everything along their path - people, animals, water and air. Despite the risks to protected animals, drinking water, frontline communities and our shared climate — construction has continued as the project continues to be insured. Tar sands oil releases three times more pollution than conventional oil and the Trans Mountain pipeline expansion will triple the pipeline’s oil capacity — making it one of the most carbon intensive projects in the world. That’s why it’s so critical to consider about this expansion, NOW! The science is telling us that we cannot afford any new fossil fuel expansion. Trans Mountain Pipeline is literally a life-threatening expansion project. Will the government heads think about our environment and stop their greedy planning?!

Englischer Garten Muenchen - The English Gardens in Munich Germany

Munich’s Largest Park The "Englischer Garten" (English Garden) is Munich's largest park. In addition to its beer gardens, this location is a recreational dream for all hobby athletes: cyclists and joggers who have a great chance to use paths spreading across seventy-eight kilometres. In spring, summer and fall, tightrope walkers stretch their slack lines between trees, Frisbee players throw their discs and amateur kickers meet for soccer games. Kleinhesseloher See The Kleinhesseloher See (lake) at the border of the northern English Garden is a fine place to relax. It has to be remembered that the lake is not suitable for swimming, but you can spend a calm day on the water with a rowing or pedal boat. Hundreds of people like to sit at the shore during summer and look the swans and Mallard ducks that glide through it. These swans, geese and Mallard ducks also fearlessly move out of the lake and have a gala feeding time across vast expanse of fields and lawns. Monopteros Temple No matter what time of the day or year, the Monopteros offers a spectacular view of streams and trees, making you feel fine. It is no wonder then that the temple in the English Garden has come to embody the cosmopolitan nature of the city of Munich. The Monopteros is about fifty-five feet in height and reaches almost as deep into the ground. The stylish temple is built upon a strong brick foundation that is elegantly hidden by a man-made hill. This gives the Monopteros a secure base while offering a superlative view of the city and makes it a part of the English Garden that can be seen from afar. Along with the Chinesischer Turm (Chinese Tower), it is one of the best known locations in this world-famous park. History King Ludwig I specially ordered his court architect Leo von Klenze to build a Greek-style temple. The Monopteros was constructed between 1832 and 1837 in honour of Elector Karl Theodor and King Maximilian. A green dome with a red top was supported by ten columns made of Kelheim limestone. The construction of a temple was first suggested by the urban planner Friedrich Ludwig Sckell, who proposed the idea of a pantheon in a specially designed wooded area in 1807. It was visualised as a place to honour Bavarian personalities. His nephew, the landscape gardener Carl August Sckell, managed to convince King Ludwig I to put those plans into action. Sckell Jr. spent many years designing the embankment around the firm foundations and planting trees in certain areas. Ludwig I of Bavaria modeled Munich into his own “Athens on the Isar” thought and many of the city buildings still are evidence of his undertaking today.

Mozarthaus Wien

The Mozarthaus in Vienna was the residence of the Mozart family from 1784 to 1787. It is also known as the Figaro House. It is located in the old town area of Vienna – Domgasse 5, Stephensplatz. It has now been turned into a museum. History The house was built in the seventeenth century, originally with a couple of floors, and was redeveloped in 1716. Leopold Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus’ father, rented rooms here from 1784, at which time it was also known as the Camesina House, after the family who had owned it since 1720. The original entrance of the house facing Schulerstraße (the one used by Mozart) was walled up to make room for a shop. The house is entered today from its rear in the Domgasse. In 1941, marking the 150th anniversary of Mozart's death, his former rooms were opened to the public. In 1945, the running of the exhibition was taken over by the Vienna Museum. In 2004, the City of Vienna's Wien Holding Company undertook the renovation of the Mozarthaus and redesigned it for visitors. This was completed in time for Mozart Year 2006 on the 250th anniversary of his birth. The design of the historical courtyard was essentially destroyed by the installation of an elevator. The original seventeenth century stone floor of the kitchen was removed and the original oak door of Mozart's apartment was varnished. Today the Mozarthaus presents information about the composer in combination with historical exhibits and audio-visual installation. Over two hundred thousand visitors come to this museum every year. Layout The Figaro House building has five floors, with private apartments located on the fifth floor. From the fourth floor to second basement level of the house, Mozarthaus Vienna uses as a museum and event rooms. Fourth floor – Business Lounge The `Business Lounge’ is located on the fourth floor of the building. This is an event area consisting of several rooms. The event area is characterised by restored wall paintings in combination with modern wall coverings. Third floor – Vienna in the Era of Mozart The third floor exhibits Mozart's personal and social situation in Vienna. A multimedia installation presents all the places where Mozart lived during his Viennese years. Visitors also learn about Mozart's most important performance venues and people of importance to him. His fondness for social life - balls, gambling, fashion, literature and science along with his connection to the thought world of the Freemasons, are closely explained. Second floor – Mozart's Musical World On this floor, Mozart's most important musician and composer colleagues in Vienna are presented. The exhibition also covers Mozart's collaboration with the librettist Lorenzo da Ponte in the operas The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni. The historical stucco ceilings and wall paintings in these rooms give an impression of the original decoration of the entire house. This exhibition level also describes Mozart's Requiem and the end of his life, as well as a multimedia theatre installation "The Magic Flute - The Divine Laughter", which presents visitors with three-dimensional collages of scenes from The Magic Flute. The `Figaro Parallelo’ is a media installation that offers an up-to-date coverage of various Figaro productions from the world's leading opera houses with the different approaches of their individual directors. First floor – The Mozart Apartment The first floor houses the apartment where Mozart lived with his family from 1784 to 1787 and composed works such as his opera The Marriage of Figaro and three of the six Haydn Quartets. It was the largest and most expensive apartment Mozart ever lived in. It is the only Viennese apartment that has survived to this day. There are four rooms, two cabinets and a kitchen in the apartment and Mozart and his family are described with the help of photos and documents. An impressive flute clock is also on show. It was made around 1790. It plays a variation of the Andante in F Major for a Small Mechanical Organ, K. 616, which Mozart probably composed for this or a similar clock. Second Basement Floor – Concert Hall In the second basement, the historically unique baroque vault was converted into a multifunctional event venue using modern elements. During the restoration, the vault structure of the old brickwork was preserved.

Buda Pest Opera House

The Seat of Hungarian State Opera where Music is the Key Element Buda Pest Opera is one of the most famous buildings and tourist landmarks in this historical city. Glorifying its architecture and the possibility of attending an opera are two items that you may keep in mind if you visit Buda Pest. Music is a key element in the culture of Hungary. Most European cities show off opera houses proudly, such as the one in the Hungarian capital. The city dwellers took musical education very seriously and music played an important part in their culture and in their life in general. Location and History The Hungarian State Opera House is located on Andrassy Avenue in central Buda Pest. It was designed by a major nineteenth-century Hungarian architect, Miklos Ybl. The construction began in 1875 and was funded by the city’s municipality through the patronage of Emperor Franz Joseph I of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Opera House opened to the public on 27th September, 1884. On this day, the National Opera House opened with an initial capacity of 2,400 spectators and in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. The nineteenth century was a productive period in Central Europe. Along with business, culture also took a step forward with the building of great opera houses that have survived till today. Examples are Staatsoper Wien (Vienna Opera House), Paris’s Palais Garnier and the Buda Pest Opera. The Budapest Opera House was built keeping the architecture of the Vienna Opera House in mind, but under orders from the King not to outdo that in size. Visiting groups had performed operas in Buda Pest from the early nineteenth century. Upon its completion, the opera section moved into the Hungarian Royal Opera House, with performances gaining an excellent reputation in its repertoire of about fifty operas with about one hundred and thirty annual performances. Hub for Reputed Artists Many important artists were guests here including the composer and conductor, Gustav Mahler. He was director in Budapest from 1888 to 1891. Later, Otto Klemperer was music director for three years from 1947 to 1949. In the nineteen seventies, the condition of the building pressed the Hungarian State to ask for a major renovation, which began in 1980 and lasted till 1984. The re- opening was held exactly a century after the original opening, on the 27 September 1984. The arrival of Gustav Mahler, as director of the opera, between 1888 and 1891, changed the direction of the theatre, which had until then suffered from financial difficulties and low quality performances. Under Mahler, the Budapest Opera House reached its first Golden Age. Architectural Style The Opera’s architect was Miklós Ybl, who also designed St. Stephen’s Basilica, among many other buildings and monuments. The Budapest Opera House is built in a Neo-Renaissance style with Baroque elements, in which paintings and sculpture play an important role. It is inspired by the Paris and Vienna opera houses that were built to glorify music. The decoration of the symmetrical façade followed a musical theme. In niches on either side of the main entrance, there are figures of Erkel and Liszt. These were sculpted by Alajos Strobl. The foyer has marble columns. The vaulted ceiling is covered in murals by Bertalan Szekely and Mor Than. They illustrate the nine Muses. Wrought-iron lamps light up the wide stone staircase and the main entrance. Going to the opera was a big social event in the nineteenth century. A huge and sweeping staircase was a key element of the opera house as it allowed ladies to show off their new gowns. Performances were closed down for the two World Wars, but fortunately the building itself escaped serious damage and so they were quickly able to resume after the wars were over. Since then, the opera house has undergone several revamping to modernise its space and reduce its capacity to about one thousand two hundred and fifty in the audience. Today, the opera house is also home to the Buda Pest Opera Ball, a society event that dates back to 1886.

The Parliament Buildings by the Danube River in Buda Pest Hungary

The Hungarian Parliament Building is a significant and iconic landmark for both Buda and Pest separated by River Danube. The location is Lajos Kossuth Square. This architectural monument is majestic in its style and presence. It was designed by the architect, Imre Steindl. It is situated on the Pest side on the eastern bank of the Danube River. Style of Architecture The building is crafted majestically in neo-Gothic style and it plays an important role as the seat of the Hungarian National Assembly. It is a crucial tourist destination which offers guided tours of the interiors. The architecture is also reminiscent of Baroque and Renaissance revival styles. It is 268 metres long and 123 metres wide and 96 metres high with its cupola. Its construction started in 1885 and got completed in 1904. The interior includes the Dome Hall, The Grand Stairway and the Chamber of Peers. It is the largest building in the whole country of Hungary and the tallest building in Pest, since its completion. In Hungarian, this building is also known as Orszaghaz which means `house of the country’. The style of architecture of this building has been influenced by the Gothic designs, similar to the Rathaus (City Hall) in Wien (Vienna). Its Renaissance elements, particularly of its cupola have been influenced by that of Maria vom Siege Dom (Church) in Wien (Vienna).

Galileo Galilei - A Misunderstood Renaissance Man

No one wants to ponder about this character, nowadays. Students of world history may be coming across him in cursory class sessions. All are with the momentum of modern living. There are few who would like to stop in their tracks and ponder over such extraordinary talents from history who deserve a re-discovery. One of these remarkable lives was that of Galileo Galilei. He was born in the sixteenth century and lived into the seventeenth. He was much more than just a mathematician. He explored many interests during his lifetime, ranging from being a scientist to being a music aficionado. There was hardly any subject that he did not know about up to his time. You may call him a philosopher, an engineer, a mathematician, an astronomer or a physicist. He was a genuine Renaissance man or a polymath. He played a considerable role in the scientific revolution which was brewing during his lifetime. His discoveries and his philosophy on astronomy came under attack, later on in his life. He stirred up controversies which involved everyone. His contemporaries, scholars and close friends and the clergy all went out of their way to stifle that which he held as his truth. However, they do not matter as Galileo changed the world we live in by ways others could not. His arguments and controversies considering the problems of his age brought him to the centre stage of attraction, even if they came into conflict with the culture of those times. All his statements had to be addressed to, for they could no longer be ignored or denied. This is the main reason why his name is still mentioned, today – five hundred years later. A Representative of the Italian Renaissance As per Ralph Waldo Emerson, Galileo was great but highly misunderstood. In Europe, the Renaissance movement occurred between the fourteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It was a bridge on which historical events took place, transitioning between medieval times and the Baroque age. It was into this age that Galileo Galilei was born. It was a period of a cultural movement which affected European life greatly. Before this happened, people were controlled and governed by the Catholic Church and life revolved around the doctrines and dogmas of the churches. It was also a period which brought the Black Death or the plague which was spread by rats and fleas. People died in big numbers. It is estimated that almost half of the European population was wiped off on this account. The plague did not spare even the royalty or the clergy. Everyone and everything became vulnerable to the plague. People started picking up their lives once this phase passed. In this time of revival, writers, artists, musicians, philosophers and politicians started expressing themselves with a fervour which was missing for a great while in the past in this humanist period. The works of art were now being created with intense emotion. The artists found that they had to display man and project him and his works in complete human glory. This period brought a renewal of thoughts and ideas from ancient Greeks and Romans to let people develop new ways of understanding their place in the world. Europe went through a cultural revolution. Besides Galileo, this was the age that saw the emergence of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Dante, Raphael, Shakespeare, Thomas More, the Medicis and Francis Bacon. It was the age of Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth I. People across Europe, particularly Russia, were commissioning artists for new buildings, churches, museums and palaces. In Italy, the movement flourished in Milan and Florence. Ideas spread like wildfire from these cities. People were now taking interest in how to read and write well and how to project their emotions and feelings and how they could put their innate talents to use. Galileo was born in 1564, a year in which William Shakespeare was also born and Michelangelo died. Early Life At the age of eighty-seven, Galileo had mentioned to his peers that he was “still learning”. Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, in the duchy of Florence, Italy on 15th February, 1564. He was the eldest of six children to his parents. Three of his siblings survived infancy. Infant mortality was quite high, in those days. His ancestors were rich in terms of wealth, culture and humanism. His father was a music composer and theorist; he played the lute. His brother also became a famous music composer during the Renaissance period in music history. Galileo showed an inclination towards experimentation and mathematics. At the age of eight, his family moved to Florence from Pisa and this shift had a big impact on his early life. He found the city culturally very impressive. He got his formal education at the Camaldolese Monastery in Vallombrosa. His father insisted on a university education to avoid the chances of Galileo choosing priesthood. Galileo had started thinking about becoming a monk but dropped the idea in his late teens. He joined the University of Pisa to study medicine. He lost his interest in medicine soon and became fascinated with natural philosophy and mathematics. While studying at Pisa, Galileo became familiar with Aristotle and his view of the world changed. He was impressed by philosophy that relied on deductive reasoning. He began to study mathematics with Filippo Fantoni who was head of the Mathematics Department at the university. He studied Archimedes and Euclid. Inherent Qualities of a Master Galileo once said, “You cannot teach a man anything; you can only help him find it within himself.” He began teaching mathematics in Florence in 1585. Then, he moved on to Siena and found a job. He also taught at Vallombrosa. He invented a thermoscope here and this instrument was the predecessor of the thermometer. He wrote his first scientific book here, `The Little Balance’ and got it published. This treatise was all about the design of a hydrostatic balance that he had invented. Hydrostatics is actually a branch of fluid mechanics and it deals with incompressible fluids that are at rest. Galileo started studying disegno; in those days, it was a term that covered all fine arts. He was inspired by the Renaissance artists to do that. After he completed his studies, he became an instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence. He taught perspective and chiaroscuro, a technique in the field of oil paintings, which was developed during his time. This technique uses deep contrasts between dark and light and paintings often look three dimensional because of this effect. In 1589, he filled an opening in the Department of Mathematics at the University of Pisa. He stayed there for three years and wrote a series of essays that were called `De Motu’. These essays dealt with the theory of motion. One of the main ideas in these essays was that theories could be tested about falling bodies by using an inclined plane to slow down the rate of descent. During this period, his father, Vincenzo, died in 1591. The responsibility of providing for his younger sisters and a younger brother fell on him. He looked out for a higher paying university position. He shifted to University of Padua in Venezia and settled down there. He remained here for the next eighteen years. This was perhaps the happiest time of his life. He taught Euclid’s geometry mostly. During this period, he made some crucial discoveries and came across new findings in fundamental science that included kinematics of motion and astronomy along with practical applied sciences. He designed telescope here and also started studying astrology. His keen interest in mathematics led him to explore the beauty of the heavens and helped him bring light to ancient controversies. The Galilean Moons “Science would not be what it is if there had not been a Galileo… the world as we know it is the product of his genius,” said Norman Robert Campbell. Galileo was a pious Roman Catholic but with a woman named Marina Gamba; he fathered three children that were born out of wedlock. By May of 1609, Galileo developed a new series of telescopes, purely out of his mathematical skills and his passion for craftsmanship. These designs brought a new dimension to astronomical science. To increase the magnification of the lenses, Galileo learnt how to grind his lenses and the people who benefited most out of his creations were the sailors. The whole world was impressed with his innovations. Through the telescopes he made, people could look through them and see upright and magnified images on land. At the same time, they were able to see the objects in the skies, above. Galileo explored further and realised that telescopes were meant for more significant things than the concept of scanning the horizons on earth. He began turning his attention to the night sky. Galileo, the mathematician, was slowly metamorphosing into a scientist. In his famous work, `Sidereus Nuncius’, meaning the starry messenger, he started mentioning the moon not only of Earth but the four moons that were orbiting the Jupiter planet. He was the first to point out that the Earth’s moon was not at all smooth and that there were several craters to be found there, along with mountains. He started challenging the Aristotelian views that everything above the Earth was incorruptible and perfect. Galileo also became the first one to observe the line that separated the lunar day from night and named it as the terminator. He arrived at a conclusion that the darker regions of the moon were low-lying flat areas and the brighter regions were mountainous and rough. He happened to judge correctly that the mountains on the moon were about four miles high. He showed to the world that with his telescope; people could see ten times more objects in the sky than what was available to see with the naked eye. He published star charts of the Orion belt and of the Pleiades that is a small star cluster. He also reported that he had discovered four objects, when seen through the telescope he had invented, went on to form a straight line of stars near planet Jupiter. He also noted that these bodies changed their positions from January through March in 1610 in relation to Jupiter’s position, but they always remained in a straight line. The conclusion drawn was that these objects were orbiting Jupiter, which is the largest planet in the Solar System. He called these moons the Medician Stars, naming them after the four royal Medici brothers. Today, the moons of Jupiter are referred to always as Galilean moons. Some have named them individually as Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Changing the Views of the World Galileo Galilei once said, “In questions of science, the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.” Once Galileo’s treatise in the book `The Starry Messenger’ was published, he became a celebrity in Rome in 1611. The Collegio Romano gave great banquets in his honour and he was made a member of the Academia dei Lincei. Galileo was quite pleased with this distinction. People were fascinated with his theory about the four moons of Jupiter. He was able to establish the orbital periods for these four moons after making observations through his telescope. He struggled to make precise calculations. He was not able to identify which moon was which. In the following year, he was able to provide accurate periods of each moon cycle of Jupiter. One of his contemporaries was Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and scientist. Kepler inspired Galileo to turn his attention to Planet Saturn. At first glance, Galileo thought that the planet looked like three bodies as his telescope was not strong enough to show the planet’s rings. They appeared to him as separate globes that were circling round. He was puzzled. He also observed through his telescope that the planet Venus showed phases like those of the Earth’s moon. He concluded that the planet may be orbiting the Sun and not the Earth. During Galileo’s days, most astronomers believed in a system that was initiated by a Danish astronomer by the name of Tycho Brahe who surmised that everything apart from the Earth and the Moon went round the Sun and the Sun orbited the Earth. Another way of looking at the heavens was the system of Nicolaus Copernicus who said that all bodies of planets orbited the Sun. Copernicus was born almost a generation before Galileo. He wrote `On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres’ and it was published in 1543, the year of his death. His theory was not backed and eventually was ignored. Galileo did not have sufficient proof to challenge the traditional opinion. He conducted experiments at the Tower of Pisa and refuted the ancient Aristotelian idea that heavier objects fell faster than the lighter ones. During his experiment, he dropped a couple of spheres of different weight and observed as they hit the ground at the same time. During those days, majority of the people in the world believed that the Earth was stationary and that it did not move. Galileo tried to prove with his `falling bodies’ theory that this was not the case. Opposition to the Church Observing the skies had been going on since time immemorial. A Greek scientist, Ptolemy, from Alexandria, Egypt in the second century after Christ had concluded that there was a geocentric theory concerning the heavens. He put forth a theory that the sun and the heavenly bodies rotated around the earth. Copernicus had mentioned that the sun was the centre of all and he developed the heliocentric system. Then, Galileo gave his observations on the planet Venus and concluded that the Ptolemaic system would have to go into the shadows. Most astronomers were slowly converting to the Copernican system when observing the heavens. In 1612, Galileo made another discovery – the planet Neptune. At first, it was a dim and unremarkable star to him. Later, he took note of the planet’s motion in relation to the stars. He published his findings in `Discourse on Floating Bodies’ which he released in the same year. In the following year, he published `Letters on the Sunspots’. Galileo started to get fascinated with the Milky Way Galaxy. Other scientists did not know what to make of it. Galileo recognised that the Milky Way was a myriad of stars that was packed together very tightly and that made them look like clouds when being observed from the Earth. Galileo was the first astronomer who could actually tell the difference between the stars and the planets. He described the stars as blazes of light and the planets as discs. He was able to approximately measure the size of stars without the help of a telescope. It has to be kept in our minds that the Vatican ran all things in Europe in the early seventeenth century. The Reformation was fast approaching and Catholic Church’s prominent figure, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, ignored Galileo and opposed his theories. Galileo’s theories struck a raw nerve of the Church and they attacked him by saying that he was attempting to reinterpret the Holy Bible. His theories contradicted what was mentioned in the Old Testament such as “this world is firmly established and that it cannot be moved.” Ecclesiastes 1:5 stated that ‘the sun rises and sets and returns to its place.” The Church called the astronomers absurd and foolish to bring forth their opposing theories. Galileo’s theories were considered controversial. In 1618, three comets came into sight. Galileo became involved in their appearance. He thought that they were close to Earth but that assumption was incorrect as that feeling was caused by optical refraction and the change in light waves as a result of a change in their transmission. As Galileo started arguing, he started antagonising the Jesuits. Galileo’s stand was publicised by Father Grassi in a pamphlet called `Discourse on the Comets: An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618’. These events led to Galileo publishing his next work, `The Assayer’ in which he kept on stating against Father Grassi. As his arguments did not create an impact in the society, he decided that he would stay away from further controversies. During this period, his health declined. The Trial of Galileo Galilei In 1624, Galileo wrote a book, `Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems’. He published it in Florence. In that, he mentioned, “I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, reason and intellect has intended us to forgo their use.” In the 1630s, Galileo Galilei was busy facing the wrath of the powers that were, in Rome. He was ostracised for trying to stay on the side of what he knew to be correct thinking about the cosmos. Johannes Kepler had also called the tides theory of Galileo as false. Plenty of negative opinion spread about Galileo after his publication of `Dialogue’. Pope Urban got outraged at one point and summoned Galileo to stand trial in Rome. This Inquisition eventually banned the sale of his book. He was being tried for advocating a new world view concerning helio-centrism. To make matters worse, Galileo had turned seventy and was not keeping good health. The proceedings of his trial were conducted by the Congregation of the Holy Office which went on to be called the Roman Inquisition. Ten cardinals, who were appointed by the Pope, presided over the trial. It was their task to safeguard the Catholic dogma and to prevent any attacks against it. During the trial, Galileo was not put in prison but was allowed to stay in the Villa Medici, at the Tuscan Ambassador’s residence in Rome. The trial was completed on 10th July in 1633. Cardinal Robert Bellarmine came to the rescue of Galileo. The trial ordered Galileo to be punished by praying the seven penitential Psalms – 6, 32, 38, 51,102,130 and 143. The other punishment he got was by nature when his eldest daughter who was only thirty-three years of age, died. Galileo did not resume work for many many months. When Galileo started to write again, he started on a project that was known as `Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning the Two New Sciences’. This project that eventually turned into a book was one of his finest works. This work was actually published in the Netherlands. After the publication of this work, many scholars held an opinion that Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo did not solve old problems but they asked new questions; and in doing so, they changed the whole basis on which the old questions had been framed. The two new sciences that Galileo wrote on were the strength of materials and kinematics. He also wrote on the subject of impetus and the centre of gravity. Einstein referred to Galileo as the `father of modern physics’. In 1638, Galileo started suffering from insomnia and hernia. He went to Florence to take medical advice. He also started suffering from heavy palpitation. At the age of seventy-seven, Galileo died in January 1642. The Grand Duke of Tuscany wanted Galileo to be buried in the Basilica of Santa Croce but Pope Urban reminded him that Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church for heresy. So, Galileo was buried in Novices’ Chapel. The Inquisition’s ban on the reprinting of Galileo’s works was eventually lifted in 1718 and his books got published in Florence. In 1939, Pope Pius XII described Galileo as among the audacious heroes of research’. In October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed deep regret for how Galileo was treated during his life and in the last three centuries. He acknowledged the errors that were committed by the Catholic Church tribunal that had judged the scientific positions which were held by Galileo. He blamed the Pontifical Council for Culture. The Legacy of Galileo Galileo once wrote, “I have loved the stars too fondly to be fearful of the night.” Whether people and scientists acknowledge it or not, Galileo Galilei was one of the most important founders of modern science. Galileo could be described as being among an esteemed group of scientists who could not live comfortably in the status quo; a group that included Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton. Among all these mentioned here, Galileo deserves a place above all others. Stephen Hawking also acknowledged that Galileo carries more responsibility than anyone else in science and Einstein called him the father of modern science. Not to be underestimated is the very fact that Galileo was the one who invented the telescope in 1609. He had the uncanny ability to turn his eyes to the night sky and see things that other found it difficult to observe. His observations were formulated carefully and with passage of time; most of his theories have been proven correct. Most of the theories that have been established are mostly the work and thinking of Galileo. He could see through his telescope that what had been followed as gospel truth by the Church for centuries was not true when we looked at the heavens, above. He tried to tell the world in his book `Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems’, he was charged with heresy and had to go through a trial. Unfortunately, it would take centuries for the Catholic Church and the world to come to its senses. It was Pope John Paul II who brought the reality out and rehabilitated Galileo between 1979 and 1992. He made it possible for people to think that it was Galileo who made it possible for the world to think for itself. Galileo’s voice became one for individual freedom. He was an extra-ordinary personality who lived in the age of the Renaissance. He had the guts to speak the truth no matter what people thought of him or what the consequences would be when he spoke or wrote. Despite his trial and condemnation by the Catholic Church, Galileo has remained a fascinating person. He was a genius in his scientific findings and contributed much to the study of astronomy. He brought the distinction between astrology and astronomy. He understood that the Earth moved and always maintained his philosophy to the chagrin of the Church and the powers to be of that age. He became aware that the Earth was not the centre of the universe as the Church had been preaching for centuries. He continued to stand up for his belief even in the face of imprisonment and death. He stands exonerated today. Galileo correctly identified the four moons of Jupiter – Io, Ganymede, Europa and Callisto. When NASA sent a space mission to Jupiter in 1990, they called it `Galileo’ in honour of this great scientist.